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低电平测量手册

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吉时利-低电平测量手册，微电流/电压测量电路设计参考。

SECTION 1 Low Level DC Measuring Instruments

1.1 Introduction ...............................................................................................1-3

1.2 Theoretical Measurement Limits ..........................................................1-3

1.3 Instrument Definitions ............................................................................1-5

1.3.1 The Electrometer ......................................................... 1-5

1.3.2 The DMM ......................................................................1-7

1.3.3 The Nanovoltmeter .......................................................1-7

1.3.4 The Picoammeter .........................................................1-8

1.3.5 The Source Measure Unit Instrument .........................1-8

1.3.6 The Low Current Preamp ............................................ 1-9

1.3.7 The Micro-ohmmeter ................................................... 1-9

1.3.8 The Low Current Source ............................................. 1-9

1.4 Understanding Instrument Specifications .......................................1-10

1.4.1 Definition of Accuracy Terms .....................................1-10

1.4.2 Accuracy ......................................................................1-11

1.4.3 Deratings .....................................................................1-15

1.4.4 Noise and Noise Rejection ..........................................1-15

1.4.5 Speed ..........................................................................1-17

1.5 Circuit Design Basics .............................................................................1-17

1.5.1 Voltmeter Circuits .......................................................1-17

1.5.2 Ammeter Circuits ........................................................1-19

1.5.3 Coulombmeter Circuit ................................................1-23

1.5.4 High Resistance Ohmmeter Circuits ..........................1-24

1.5.5 Low Resistance Ohmmeter Circuits............................1-26

1.5.6 Complete Instruments ............................................... 1-28

SECTION 2 Measurements from High Resistance Sources

2.1 Introduction ...............................................................................................2-2

2.2 Voltage Measurements from High Resistance Sources ...................2-2

2.2.1 Loading Errors and Guarding ......................................2-3

2.2.2 Insulation Resistance of the Test Circuit ....................2-11

2.3 Low Current Measurements ................................................................2-15

2.3.1 Leakage Currents and Guarding ................................2-15

2.3.2 Noise and Source Impedance .....................................2-21

2.3.3 Zero Drift ................................................................... 2-23

2.3.4 Generated Currents ................................................... 2-23

2.3.5 Voltage Burden ...........................................................2-31iv

2.3.6 Overload Protection................................................... 2-33

2.3.7 AC Interference and Damping ...................................2-34

2.3.8 Using a Coulombmeter to Measure Low Current ..... 2-35

2.4 High Resistance Measurements .........................................................2-39

2.4.1 Constant-Voltage Method ...........................................2-40

2.4.2 Constant-Current Method .........................................2-41

2.5 Charge Measurements..........................................................................2-46

2.5.1 Error Sources .............................................................2-47

2.5.2 Zero Check .................................................................2-48

2.5.3 Extending the Charge Measurement Range

of the Electrometer ....................................................2-48

2.6 General Electrometer Considerations...............................................2-49

2.6.1 Making Connections .................................................. 2-50

2.6.2 Electrostatic Interference and Shielding ....................2-51

2.6.3 Environmental Factors ............................................... 2-55

2.6.4 Speed Considerations ................................................ 2-56

2.6.5 Johnson Noise ............................................................2-62

2.6.6 Device Connections ...................................................2-66

2.6.7 Analog Outputs ..........................................................2-69

2.6.8 Floating Input Signals .................................................2-70

2.7 High Impedance Measurement Optimization Summary ..............2-71

SECTION 3 Measurements from Low Resistance Sources

3.1 Introduction ...............................................................................................3-2

3.2 Low Voltage Measurements ...................................................................3-2

3.2.1 Effects of Error Sources on Voltage Measurements ....3-2

3.2.2 Thermoelectric EMFs ...................................................3-3

3.2.3 Internal Offsets ............................................................ 3-7

3.2.4 Zero Drift ..................................................................... 3-7

3.2.5 RFI/EMI ........................................................................3-9

3.2.6 Johnson Noise .............................................................3-10

3.2.7 1/f Noise ......................................................................3-11

3.2.8 Line Cycle Interference and Line Cycle Integration .. 3-12

3.2.9 Magnetic Fields .......................................................... 3-13

3.2.10 Ground Loops .............................................................3-14

3.2.11 Ways to Reduce Noise .................................................3-16

3.2.12 Common-Mode Current and Reversal Errors ............3-17Low Level Measurements Handbook v

3.3 Low Resistance Measurements..........................................................3-18

3.3.1 Lead Resistance and Four-Wire Method .................... 3-18

3.3.2 Thermoelectric EMFs and

Offset Compensation Methods ..................................3-20

3.3.3 Non-Ohmic Contacts ................................................. 3-25

3.3.4 Device Heating ........................................................... 3-26

3.3.5 Dry Circuit Testing ..................................................... 3-27

3.3.6 Testing Inductive Devices ..........................................3-28

3.4 Measurement Optimization Summary for

Low Impedance Measurements .........................................................3-29

SECTION 4 Applications

4.1 Introduction ..............................................................................................4-2

4.2 Applications for Measuring Voltage from

High Resistance Sources ........................................................................4-2

4.2.1 Capacitor Dielectric Absorption .................................4-2

4.2.2 Electrochemical Measurements ..................................4-6

4.3 Low Current Measurement Applications ...........................................4-9

4.3.1 Capacitor Leakage Measurements ..............................4-9

4.3.2 Low Current Diode Measurements .......................... 4-13

4.3.3 Low Current Measurements of MOSFETs ...................4-16

4.3.4 Light Measurements with Photomultiplier Tubes ..... 4-18

4.3.5 Ion Beam Measurements .......................................... 4-21

4.3.6 Photoconductive Current of PIN Photodiode ........... 4-23

4.3.7 Avalanche Photodiode Reverse Bias Current

Measurements ............................................................ 4-24

4.3.8 Current-Voltage Characterization of

Carbon Nanotube (CNT) FETs .................................. 4-26

4.4 High Resistance Measurement Applications ..................................4-28

4.4.1 Surface Insulation Resistance Testing of

Printed Circuit Boards ..............................................4-28

4.4.2 Resistivity Measurements of Insulating Materials ....4-30

4.4.3 Resistivity Measurements of Semiconductors ..........4-34

4.4.4 Voltage Coefficient Testing of High Ohmic

Value Resistors ..........................................................4-44

4.5 Charge Measurement Applications ..................................................4-45

4.5.1 Capacitance Measurements ......................................4-45vi

4.5.2 Using a Faraday Cup to Measure Static Charge

on Objects .................................................................4-46

4.6 Low Voltage Measurement Applications ........................................4-48

4.6.1 Standard Cell Comparisons ......................................4-48

4.6.2 High Resolution Temperature Measurements

and Microcalorimetry ...............................................4-50

4.6.3 Hall Voltage and Resistivity Measurements

of a Six-Terminal Bridge Sample ................................ 4-53

4.7 Low Resistance Measurement Applications ..................................4-54

4.7.1 Contact Resistance ....................................................4-54

4.7.2 Superconductor Resistance Measurements .............. 4-57

4.7.3 Resistivity Measurements of Conductive Materials .. 4-59

SECTION 5 Low Level Instrument Selection Guide

5.1 Introduction ...............................................................................................5-2

5.2 Instrument and Accessory Selector Guides........................................5-2

APPENDIX A Cable and Connector Assembly

APPENDIX B Glossary

APPENDIX C Safety Considerations

Test System Safety ...................................................................................C-2

General Safety Considerations .............................................................C-2

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